ahore, the cultural and historical capital of the Punjab, had experienced many cycles of expansion, contraction and reconstruction under different governments before it was taken over by the British in 1849. Geographical and military factors, commercial networks, religious institutions and imperial patronage shaped the urban fabric of pre-British Lahore. From ancient times to the establishment of the Sikh Empire, Lahore had grown from a small town into a great city.

Lahore has a limited archaeological record. Traditional narratives speak of the city’s founding in the name of Lava, son of the epic hero Rama. Archaeological evidence suggests the area was settled at least 2,000 years before Common Era. Materials recovered from the Lahore Fort area indicate habitation around the fort dating back to before the formation of the historical city of Lahore. Settlements were strategically located near the Ravi River, which gave rise to fertile floodplains and provided connectivity to other parts of the Punjab. The earliest urbanisation and settlement were primarily geographic, along rivers.

By the early medieval period, Lahore had become a major city in the region. The city gained political significance during the Ghaznavid era (11th Century). As Ghazni declined, Lahore emerged as a major military and administrative centre on the eastern frontier of the Ghaznavid Empire.

During this period, urban growth was concentrated in fortified settlements built to withstand frequent invasions and political change. The old city was much smaller than the present-day Lahore. It lay to the west of the present Walled City. Religious institutions, markets and military installations dominated the urban landscape. The construction of mosques, shrines and tombs caused the city to spread beyond the fortified central area.

The Delhi Sultanate also shaped Lahore’s urban character. It served as a provincial capital and a military outpost, attracting merchants, scholars, artisans and religious leaders from Central Asia and Northern India. Urban development was concentrated along the main trade routes to and from Delhi, Multan, Kabul and Kashmir. These commercial activities spurred the creation of specialised markets and dwellings. Sufi shrines became focal points around which new areas developed. Except for the incessant Mongol incursions, the city’s role in the political geography of northern India remained unabated.

In the Mughal era, Lahore’s urban morphology changed drastically. Lahore flourished in the 16th, 17th and the first half of the 18th Centuries, becoming one of the largest cities in South Asia. It was an important administrative, military and commercial centre for the Mughals and a link to Central Asia and Afghanistan. The city boomed during the reign of Emperor Akbar (1584-1598) and became the imperial capital. The Lahore Fort was renovated and enlarged and extensive fortifications were built around it. As imperial officials, soldiers, traders and artisans settled around the urban core, the city developed.

The Walled City was established during the Mughal era and became Lahore’s primary urban centre. People could trade through the city’s walls and 12 gates. Within these walls lay a dense network of houses, markets, caravanserais, mosques and gardens. The city’s spatial distribution was determined by administration and social stratification. They laid out the main streets for commercial purposes and established residential districts next to the various occupational groups.

The Mughal Empire’s Lahore was known for its monumental gardens, suburban settlements and religious complexes, but not for its city wall. The city was embellished with the architectural works of Emperors Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. The Shalimar Gardens and Jahangir’s Tomb were built, as were the Badshahi Masjid and the Wazir Khan Mosque. Roads, canals and gardens connected these monuments to the larger urban fabric beyond the Walled City. Lahore was a centre of learning, trade and architectural splendour in the Persianate world.

The Ravi River greatly aided the expansion. Riverine trade continued. Agricultural produce from villages around the city helped feed Lahore’s ever-growing population and connected the city to regional and international markets.

The city’s backlands were more closely integrated into the city’s economy and were among the earliest signs of the metropolis’s growth. The suburbs developed among gardens, cemeteries and military installations; the distinction between town and country grew harder to discern.

The decline of Mughal power in the 18th Century halted Lahore’s urban development. The Afghan invasions, along with political and administrative problems, negatively affected the economy and the population. Modern documents describe periods of insecurity and destruction that disrupted business and urban infrastructure. The city underwent several administrative changes. The imperial authority weakened between 1745 and 1756. Despite these obstacles, Lahore remained a symbol and a strategic centre of the Punjab.

The rise of Sikhs in the Punjab marked the beginning of a new urban era for Lahore. In 1799, Maharaja Ranjit Singh captured Lahore and it became the centre of the Sikh Empire. Years of political conflict followed, a major turning point in the city’s fate. Lahore was the capital of a rich kingdom. It drew people from all parts of the Punjab and the adjoining areas, including administrators, soldiers, traders and craftsmen.

During the Sikh period, the city expanded beyond the Walled City’s limits. Military cantonments, administrative buildings and nobles’ houses encircled the old city centre. Existing buildings were re-purposed, adapted or restored and new structures were built in line with the priorities of the Sikh state. Stability returned to the region and Lahore Fort once again became the nucleus of power. Commercial activity flourished. The city’s bazaars regained prominence. This helped trade among Central Asia, Kashmir, Multan and North India.

In the early 19th Century, Lahore was a small, densely populated urban area with extensive gardens, tombs, military bases and suburbs. Gradually, the city spread to the peripheral colonies. Settlements such as Mozang and Qila Gujar Singh grew. The people of Lahore lacked awareness of the importance of urban planning, which was largely organic in nature. Still, political power had to be considered, so investment in infrastructure and public works was needed. Under Ranjit Singh (1799-1839), Lahore became the premier city of the Punjab.

Lahore’s urban sprawl before the British rule in 1849 was the product of centuries of political change, economic life and cultural patronage. Over the years, Lahore grew from the riverbanks into a thriving Mughal city and then into the capital of the Sikh Empire. Its exclusive urban features have been preserved thanks to its geography, economic conditions and architectural heritage. Before the British annexation of Lahore in 1849, the city had already begun to take shape within the spatial framework that would make it a modern city.

Dr Mazhar Abbas is the author of The Aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971: Enduring Impact (Routledge, 2024). He is a lecturer at GCU, Faisalabad, and a research fellow at PIDE, Islamabad. He can be contacted at [email protected]. His X-handle is @MazharGondal87